Chapter 1: Environmental Challenges

Different perspectives on the environment, such as anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric viewpoints, offer varying frameworks for understanding our relationship with nature and guiding environmental policies.

Western Privilege and Anthropocentric Perspective:

The concept of Western privilege highlights how the dominant cultural and economic systems in Western societies often prioritize human needs over environmental concerns. The anthropocentric perspective, common in many Western cultures, places human interests and well-being at the center of moral consideration, sometimes disregarding the intrinsic value of non-human entities and ecosystems.

Biocentric and Ecocentric Perspective:

Biocentrism and ecocentrism are two philosophical perspectives that emphasize the intrinsic value of all living beings and ecosystems. Biocentrism focuses on the inherent worth of individual organisms, advocating for their rights and welfare regardless of their utility to humans. It posits that all life forms have a moral standing and deserve consideration in ethical decision-making. In contrast, ecocentrism broadens this view by prioritizing the health and integrity of entire ecosystems, arguing that the interconnectedness of all life forms and their environments should guide our actions. While biocentrism seeks to protect individual species, ecocentrism emphasizes the balance and sustainability of ecological systems as a whole, highlighting the interdependence of all entities within the biosphere. Together, these perspectives challenge anthropocentric views and promote a more holistic approach to environmental ethics.

Environmental Issues

Let’s look at a few of the emerging environmental issues we face today.

^{UN Environment Programme. (2022, February 16). Emerging environmental issues that we should be paying attention to [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/PPniKJyH_rg}

Planetary Boundaries

Planetary Boundaries can help us the severity of environmental issues around us. The concept of planetary boundaries defines nine critical environmental processes that maintain Earth’s stability and resilience, with humanity’s development reliant on staying within these limits. Proposed in 2009 by Johan Rockström and 28 scientists, the boundaries have been updated in 2023, revealing that six of the nine have been transgressed, including climate change, biosphere integrity, and the alteration of nutrient cycles. Crossing these boundaries heightens the risk of abrupt or irreversible environmental changes, impacting ecosystems and human societies. The interdependence of the boundaries means that crossing one could trigger others to exceed safe levels. Regular updates, such as the annual “Planetary Health Check,” monitor these thresholds to guide sustainable practices. Maintaining all boundaries is essential for the continued well-being of both the planet and humanity.

Source: Stockholm Resilience Centre

6 Planetary Boundaries that we have already passed

1. Biosphere Integrity (Biodiversity Loss): Biodiversity reflects the range and variety of life on Earth—and thus the health and resilience of nature—at three levels:

• Ecosystems. Diversity at the level of entire ecosystems—for example, wetlands, grasslands, or forests—is a function of the size of the intact ecosystem area, the magnitude of its biomass, and its ability to provide ecosystem services such as water regulation or air purification.
• Species. The variation in species, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, involves both richness (number of species) and abundance (population for each species) within each ecosystem, as well as the distribution of species across ecosystems.
• Genes. Genetic variability is essential to species’ ability to adapt to environmental changes and their resilience to external threats such as diseases.

Nowadays species extinction rates are far above natural background levels, threatening ecosystem stability and resilience.

2. Biogeochemical Flows (Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles): The Biogeochemical Flows boundary refers to the disruption of the natural cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus, primarily due to industrial agriculture. Humans fix more nitrogen from the atmosphere through fertilizer production than all natural processes combined, and we mine large amounts of phosphorus for crop use. Much of this excess ends up in rivers, lakes, and oceans, where it causes eutrophication—a process that overstimulates algae growth. When these algae die and decompose, they consume oxygen in the water, creating “dead zones”—areas so low in oxygen that most marine life cannot survive. One of the most well-known examples is the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone, which forms every summer due to nutrient runoff from the Mississippi River Basin.

3. Land-System Change: It refers to the large-scale transformation of Earth’s natural landscapes—especially forests, wetlands, and grasslands—into urban areas, agricultural fields, and infrastructure. This boundary is primarily concerned with how much of the planet’s surface is being altered by human activity. For example, widespread deforestation for agriculture (like soy and palm oil plantations) and urban expansion reduces biodiversity, disrupts carbon and water cycles, and weakens the resilience of ecosystems. These changes not only contribute to climate change by releasing stored carbon but also reduce the land’s ability to support life, including human societies. Scientists estimate that more than 75% of the Earth’s ice-free land has already been significantly altered, pushing this boundary beyond its safe limit.

4. Climate Change: Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and global temperatures have exceeded safe levels, increasing the risk of severe climate disruptions. This is because carbon cycle disruption. The carbon cycle is a natural process that describes the movement of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms, featuring essential sinks, sources, and sequestration processes. Carbon exists in various forms, including carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and organic carbon in plants and animals.

The cycle begins with photosynthesis, where plants absorb CO2 and convert it into glucose and oxygen, forming the basis of the food web. Significant sinks include forests and oceans, which absorb CO2 during photosynthesis and through marine plant activity. Sources refer to processes or activities that release carbon dioxide (CO₂) or other carbon compounds into the atmosphere. These sources contribute to the overall carbon cycle and can include natural sources like volcanic eruptions and respiration by plants and animals, as well as human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Additionally, natural sequestration occurs in these sinks, while technologies like carbon capture and storage (CCS) aim to capture CO2 emissions from industrial processes and store them underground.

Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have disrupted the carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric CO2 levels and contributing to climate change. Understanding the carbon cycle is essential for developing strategies to mitigate its impacts and promote environmental sustainability.

5. Novel Entities (Chemical Pollution and Plastics): “Novel entities” include synthetic chemicals, plastics, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, radioactive materials, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)—substances that do not naturally occur in the environment and whose impacts are often poorly understood. Over 500 million tons of plastic are produced each year, but only 9% is recycled. The rest accumulates in landfills, oceans, and ecosystems. Moreover, 2.3 billion tons of synthetic chemicals are produced annually. This volume far exceeds society’s capacity to assess and monitor their safety. The release of synthetic chemicals, plastics, and other pollutants into the environment is occurring at a rate that exceeds our ability to assess and manage their impacts.

6. Freshwater Change (Green and Blue Water Use): The Freshwater Change planetary boundary addresses the disruption of both blue water (surface and groundwater) and green water (soil moisture used by plants) systems. Human activities—especially agriculture, dam construction, and deforestation—have altered natural water flows and moisture cycles on a global scale. Over 70% of freshwater withdrawals go to irrigation, and much of this water is consumed rather than returned to the system. Meanwhile, green water, which supports rain-fed agriculture and ecosystems, is increasingly affected by land degradation and climate change. These disruptions reduce the availability of water for ecosystems and people, intensify droughts and floods, and weaken the land’s ability to support vegetation and regulate climate. Scientists have found that both blue and green water systems have been pushed beyond safe limits, threatening food security, biodiversity, and climate stability.

Businesses Impact on Planetary Boundaries

Businesses have a profound impact on planetary boundaries through their operations, supply chains, and consumption patterns. Industrial agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and fossil fuel extraction are major drivers of climate change, land-system change, and biogeochemical flows by emitting greenhouse gases, clearing forests, and overusing fertilizers. The production and disposal of plastics and chemicals contribute to the transgression of the novel entities boundary, while water-intensive industries like textiles and energy production strain freshwater systems. Moreover, unsustainable business practices often lead to biodiversity loss through habitat destruction and pollution. Understanding environmental externalities is crucial for recognizing business significant impacts on the environment, as they reveal the hidden costs of economic activities that can lead to ecological degradation and affect overall sustainability.

Environmental externalities refer to the unintended side effects of economic activities that impact third parties or the environment, which are not reflected in the costs of goods and services. These externalities can be either positive or negative; for instance, pollution from a factory may harm local ecosystems and public health, representing a negative externality, while a community garden may enhance local biodiversity and improve quality of life, showcasing a positive externality. The presence of externalities often leads to market failures, as businesses may prioritize profit over environmental stewardship, resulting in overexploitation of resources and degradation of natural habitats. Addressing environmental externalities typically requires regulatory interventions, such as taxes, subsidies, or cap-and-trade systems, to ensure that the true costs of environmental impacts are accounted for in economic decision-making, ultimately promoting more sustainable practices.

Individual impacts on planetary boundaries

Individual actions play a significant role in influencing environmental issues and the health of planetary boundaries. Everyday choices—such as energy use, diet, transportation, consumption habits, and waste management—collectively shape global environmental outcomes. For example, reducing meat consumption can lower pressure on land-system change, biogeochemical flows, and climate change, since livestock farming is resource-intensive and a major emitter of greenhouse gases. Choosing public transport, biking, or walking helps reduce carbon emissions and air pollution. Minimizing plastic use and properly disposing of hazardous waste can reduce the impact on the novel entities boundary. Conserving water and supporting sustainable products also help protect freshwater systems and biodiversity. While systemic change is essential, individual behavior—especially when adopted at scale—can drive demand for sustainable practices and influence policy and business decisions.

Environmental Issues in Canada

Canada faces a range of significant environmental issues that reflect both its vast natural resources and the pressures of development. Here’s an overview of some major environmental issues in Canada:

• Climate Change:
  • Rising temperatures leading to extreme weather events (wildfires, floods, droughts).
  • Significant impacts on Arctic ecosystems and indigenous communities.
  • Contributes to global sea-level rise.
• Biodiversity Loss:
  • Diverse ecosystems at risk (boreal forests, coastal habitats).
  • Habitat destruction, pollution, and invasive species contribute to declining wildlife populations.
  • Species at risk include caribou and various bird species; conservation efforts are critical.
• Resource Extraction:
  • Oil, gas, and mining industries cause environmental degradation (deforestation, water contamination, soil erosion).
  • Overfishing in many coastal regions can cause biodiversity loss.
  • Need for policies that promote renewable energy and sustainable practices.
• Environmental Justice:
  • Indigenous communities disproportionately affected by environmental degradation.
  • Importance of recognizing indigenous rights and involving communities in decision-making.
  • Addressing social justice alongside environmental issues is vital for a sustainable future.

The urgencies of these environmental issues require us to think critically, consider various perspectives, and make informed decisions that weigh the benefits and consequences. As future leaders and change-makers, it’s vital to approach these environmental issues with an open mind and seek innovative solutions that respect the environment, uphold social values, and foster economic prosperity.