10 Conclusion

Every aspect of science is affected by ethical dilemmas and concerns. Yet, scientists frequently fail to consider the ethical ramifications of their actions. This behaviour can be deliberate when, unfortunately, many scientists behave unethically for a variety for reasons (Cairns et al., 2021). However, many times it is not deliberate but rather results from ignorance or carelessness that causes researchers to end up in an unethical trap they never foresaw. We have an expectation that scientists will behave ethically, but yet we often fail to provide them with the tools they need to make ethical decisions (Zaikowski & Garrett, 2004; Olimpo et al., 2017). Science educators therefore have the responsibility to facilitate learning within the scientific training process. However, students themselves also have a responsibility to educate themselves on ethical science. Whether you are an undergraduate who is only in the lab for classes or a graduate student completing their thesis, you are engaging in science on many levels, all of which have ethical considerations and ramifications. All of the topics discussed in this OER apply in any scientific setting including class laboratories. Misrepresenting data in a lab report for a university class is unethical, just as it is unethical in a publication. Regardless of the level of study,  unethical scientific practice is harmful.

The purpose of this OER was to provide students with the opportunity to practice ethical decision-making on a variety of topics they may encounter during their scientific careers. As most ethics training is currently taught either as a philosophy course or individually during hands on training with a mentor, many young scientists enter laboratory environments with little to no experience with applied ethics (Caad, 2023). By engaging students in active critical thinking about this decision-making process, this resource provides a safe space to explore end develop these skills. Using an ethically minded lens, students will have practiced making ethical decisions using case studies based on situations they may encounter in a lab setting.

Having completed this OER students should understand that:

• Safety, training and risk are important to consider throughout an experiment. Failure to do so can not only potentially harm someone but can result in bad data and contribute to unethical research. All those conducting research have a responsibility for safety and risk should be openly addressed within research environments. [See 1.1]

• While some unethical behaviour can be unintentional, the intention matters less than the outcome. Ignorance or a lack of awareness is not an excuse for unethical behaviour. This behaviour can impact anyone in science including well-meaning and experienced researchers. [See 2.1]

• Considering the ethical ramifications of an experiment during the design process can help prevent unethical behaviour. It is vital to design experiments to be reproducible to help ensure that it they are ethically conducted and free of fraud, fabrication, bias, etc. Everyone shares the responsibility of identifying and bringing forward ethical flaws in design or unethical implementation of existing research designs. [See 3.1]

• Many different materials are required for an experiment, but how we source and dispose of these materials can change the ethical standing of an experiment. Ethical researchers should take time to consider how and where materials are produced and how they will be disposed of even after they have left the institution. [See 4.1]

• Maintaining the integrity of data during collection, analysis and reporting is critical. Fabrication and falsification are two of the main reasons for research misconduct, but both can easily pollute and confuse the research record, thus tainting our base knowledge and misinforming others who may use or cite the information. Carelessness is not an excuse for unethical practice. [See 5.1]

• Ethical, well-visualized data makes complex data more comprehensible, is objective and without bias, and is accessible to all readers. Not only must researchers take care to select appropriate, inclusive visuals, but they must be wary of fraudulent or manipulated images, which pollute the research record and contribute to the crisis of mistrust in science. [See 6.1]

• Everyone has biases but we can mitigate their effects by being aware of the types of bias that exist, those which we display ourselves and those of our colleagues. Conflicts of interest can be personal, financial or related to the institution we work in, all of which can introduce bias into an experiment and contribute to the crisis of mistrust in science. [See 7.1]

• Publication is one of the main ways we can share our knowledge and discoveries, but it is not merely about being credited for completed work because it also imparts responsibility. It is important to be aware of the different types of unethical authorship and publication practices so that they can be avoided. A basic understanding of the types of peer review can help researchers appraise sources and authors navigate the publication process. [See 8.1]

• Scientists have a responsibility to use their skills, knowledge and expertise to help society, whether that is by advocating for or against certain projects, participating in discussions, or speaking out against misused research, including dual-use research. Although there is some debate about ultimate responsibility for the use of research and the role of society in dictating ethical standards for new technology, being ethical scientists who engage with society will help rebuild trust between science and the public. [See 9.1]